Resource and Academic Literature Guide: The Impact of Food on Academic Behavior, Attendance, Performance and Attrition

General Questions about Food and Academic Behavior

• What specific impact does food have on academic behavior, attendance, performance and attrition? What are the specific biological pathways that drive these behaviors? 
• Is the evidence clear and convincing that healthy food impacts academics?  If so, shouldn’t we pay more attention? 
• Can you describe and give specific examples of school systems (and or schools) that are using food as a way to improve education (i.e., behavior, attendance, and performance)
• What are the current national trends and/or statistics regarding the impact of food in schools and academic institutions across the United States? Europe? Elsewhere? 
• Where are the major gaps in research examining the impact of food on academic performance, behavior and attendance? 
• If you had unlimited funding to study the impact food has on academic behavior, attendance, performance and attrition, what would you focus on and why?

Food Insecurity and Hunger in the Classroom

• It makes complete sense that if a child is hungry, concentration would be diminished. Food insecurity is a pervasive issue in the US, impacting an estimated 11 percent of American families. How does food insecurity impact students in the United States, specifically when it comes to attendance and academic performance? Or education in general?
• What level of responsibility should school systems and academic institutions assume to ensure their students are fed? How does the age of the child affect the level of responsibility?
• Studies have shown that young children tend to acquire many of the eating habits and food preferences of parents and caregivers. What responsibility do academic institutions and policy makers have for ensuring children have access to high-quality meals at home? How does this responsibility change as the child progresses through the school system?
• How does the impact of food insecurity or lack of access to nutritious foods present itself most often in the classroom? Developmentally? What are the short-term and long-term effects?
• Research demonstrates that students who are “at risk for hunger” are more likely to have attention and behavioral issues and less likely to perform well in school. Some studies have shown that feeding children breakfast alleviates hunger and improves memory and test performance. Does the nutritional content of what children eat at breakfast matter, or will their academic performance improve just by eating something, anything, to “break the fast?”  How do you manage feeding children vs. feeding children with high nutritional quality food? Especially when taking food waste into consideration?
• Much of the research dealing with the impact of food on the academic performance of elementary school children in the US centers on breakfast, while studies focusing on lunch largely examine trends in food waste, dietary preference and nutritional content. In your opinion, what role does lunch have on academic behavior and performance? Is lunch more or less important than breakfast? Why?

Diet Quality and School-Based Programs

• Do we know anything about which kinds of foods positively impact behavior? Attendance? Attention? Attrition? If so, what are those foods? How do we get more of those foods into schools?  
• What are your thoughts on universal school-meal programs? How might feeding all students, regardless of need or household income, impact academic performance, behavior and/or student attendance? Let’s say we do get universal lunch — and it’s what nutritionists and health experts consider poor quality – are we better off feeding nutritionally-poor-quality lunch foods vs. no foods at all? 
• Research has shown that children with food insecurity are, paradoxically, more likely to be obese. There is also some evidence that students who are food secure and eat at school may be more at risk for obesity. How does obesity impact academic performance, behavior and attendance? How have school meal programs and interventions changed to target obesity?
• Studies focusing on the nutritional value of packed lunches have found that the it varies and that school-based lunches are generally more nutritious. What impact can a less nutritious lunch have on the academic performance of students who do not qualify for free or reduced-fee lunch, and who bring their meals from home? 
• Despite the fact that many school systems prohibit the use of reward systems in classrooms, many teachers continue to use food as a reward to motivate their students. What are your thoughts on using food as a motivator in academic settings? What is the long-term impact of using food as a motivator?
• What is the ideal menu for children to improve academic performance? And if academic performance is so important (e.g., tests) why are we, as educators, not completely focused on food?
• It seems as if there is a focus on food insecurity and hunger issues, but what about the quality of the food children are eating? 
• A lot of blame for what kids eat is based on their being picky eaters. How can we change this narrative to ensure that kids are eating nutritious food in school and not wasting fruits and vegetables?
• Can someone briefly summarize the current nutrition standards for school meals? How do they measure up? Do you find them too strict, too lax? 
• Proposals were announced in January by the US Secretary of Agriculture, Sonny Perdue to give schools more control in creating menus, because schools “know their children best.” These proposals also would allow school nutrition professionals to serve healthy food that matches their student’s preferences. The focus of these proposals was to minimize food waste, but what do you think the impact could be on maintaining the integrity of the current nutrition standards?
• How does nutrition education play a role in making changes and improving the access and nutritional quality of students’ meals?
• In the book Kid Food, Bettina Elias Siegel talks about the one treat phenomenon that can ultimately lead to kids’ eating well beyond the daily recommended amount of sugar. I can speak anecdotally about what I have seen sugar to do kids’ behavior and learning, but what does the science about sugar and learning say? How can we draw more attention to the issue of sugar in the classroom, and why are teachers and school staff giving kids candy and sugary treats at all?
• Cara, you’ve published research on food insecurity on the Rutgers campus. What connections did you find between food insecurity and hunger  and academic success? Are there any policies in place right now to address food insecurity on college campuses? What more can be done?
• Kevin, you’ve gotten involved in youth nutrition-education and school hydroponic gardens; have you seen gardening impact students’ relationships with food and do you expect to see changes in key performance indicators such as academic performance? If so, how and why? 

Resources focusing on the Impact of Food on Academic Behavior, Attendance, Performance and Attrition for Children and Adolescents in the United States

The Impact of Food Insecurity on Academic Behavior, Attendance, Performance and Attrition

• University student food insecurity and academic performance. J Am Coll Health. Weaver RR, Vaughn NA, Hendricks SP, et al. University student food insecurity and academic performance. J Am Coll Health. May 2019:1-7. doi:10.1080/07448481.2019.1600522
• Food insecurity, psychosocial health and academic performance among college and university students in Georgia, USA. Raskind IG, Haardorfer R, Berg CJ. Food insecurity, psychosocial health and academic performance among college and university students in Georgia, USA. Public Health Nutr. 2019;22(3):476-485. doi:10.1017/S1368980018003439
• “It’s a Feeling That One Is Not Worth Food”: A Qualitative Study Exploring the Psychosocial Experience and Academic Consequences of Food Insecurity Among College Students. Meza A, Altman E, Martinez S, Leung CW. “It’s a Feeling That One Is Not Worth Food”: A Qualitative Study Exploring the Psychosocial Experience and Academic Consequences of Food Insecurity Among College Students. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2019;119(10):1713-1721.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2018.09.006
• Expenditure, Coping, and Academic Behaviors among Food-Insecure College Students  at 10 Higher Education Institutes in the Appalachian and Southeastern Regions. Hagedorn RL, McArthur LH, Hood LB, et al. Expenditure, Coping, and Academic Behaviors among Food-Insecure College Students  at 10 Higher Education Institutes in the Appalachian and Southeastern Regions. Curr Dev Nutr. 2019;3(6):nzz058. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzz058
• Prevalence and correlates of food insecurity among U.S. college students: a multi-institutional study. El Zein A, Shelnutt KP, Colby S, et al. Prevalence and correlates of food insecurity among U.S. college students: a multi-institutional study. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):660. doi:10.1186/s12889-019-6943-6
• No food for thought: Food insecurity is related to poor mental health and lower academic performance among students in California’s public university system. Martinez SM, Frongillo EA, Leung C, Ritchie L. No food for thought: Food insecurity is related to poor mental health and lower academic performance among students in California’s public university system. J Health Psychol. June 2018:1359105318783028. doi:10.1177/1359105318783028
• Food Insecurity and Behavioral Characteristics for Academic Success in Young Adults Attending an Appalachian University. Hagedorn RL, Olfert MD. Food Insecurity and Behavioral Characteristics for Academic Success in Young Adults Attending an Appalachian University. Nutrients. 2018;10(3). doi:10.3390/nu10030361
• Transitional Dynamics of Household Food Insecurity Impact Children’s Developmental Outcomes. Grineski SE, Morales DX, Collins TW, Rubio R. Transitional Dynamics of Household Food Insecurity Impact Children’s Developmental Outcomes. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2018;39(9):715-725. doi:10.1097/DBP.0000000000000598
• Association of Food Insecurity with Children’s Behavioral, Emotional, and Academic Outcomes: A Systematic Review. Shankar P, Chung R, Frank DA. Association of Food Insecurity with Children’s Behavioral, Emotional, and Academic Outcomes: A Systematic Review. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2017;38(2):135-150. doi:10.1097/DBP.0000000000000383
• The association of food insecurity and school absenteeism: systematic review. Tamiru D, Belachew T. The association of food insecurity and school absenteeism: systematic review. Agric & Food Secur. 2017;6(1):5. doi:10.1186/s40066-016-0083-3
• Children Receiving Free or Reduced-Price School Lunch Have Higher Food Insufficiency Rates in Summer. Huang J, Barnidge E, Kim Y. Children Receiving Free or Reduced-Price School Lunch Have Higher Food Insufficiency Rates in Summer. J Nutr. 2015;145(9):2161-2168. doi:10.3945/jn.115.214486
• Prevalence and Correlates of Food Insecurity Among Students Attending a Midsize Rural University in Oregon. Patton-Lopez MM, Lopez-Cevallos DF, Cancel-Tirado DI, Vazquez L. Prevalence and correlates of food insecurity among students attending a midsize rural university in Oregon. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2014;46(3):209-214. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2013.10.007
• An ecological study of food desert prevalence and 4th grade academic achievement  in New York State school districts. Frndak SE. An ecological study of food desert prevalence and 4th grade academic achievement  in new york state school districts. J Public Health Res. 2014;3(3):319. doi:10.4081/jphr.2014.319
• Food Insecurity as a Student Issue. Cady CL. Food Insecurity as a Student Issue. Journal of College and Character. 2014;15(4):265-272. doi:10.1515/jcc-2014-0031
• Food insecurity affects school children’s academic performance, weight gain, and social skills. Jyoti DF, Frongillo EA, Jones SJ. Food insecurity affects school children’s academic performance, weight gain, and  social skills. J Nutr. 2005;135(12):2831-2839. doi:10.1093/jn/135.12.2831
• Food Insufficiency and American School-Aged Children’s Cognitive, Academic, and Psychosocial Development. Alaimo K, Olson CM, Frongillo EA. Food Insufficiency and American School-Aged Children’s Cognitive, Academic, and Psychosocial Development. Pediatrics. 2001;108(1):44-53.

The Impact of Hunger on Function 

• A Private Struggle at a Private Institution: Effects of Student Hunger on Social and Academic Experiences. Allen CC, Alleman NF. A Private Struggle at a Private Institution: Effects of Student Hunger on Social and Academic Experiences. Journal of College Student Development. 2019;60(1):52-69. doi:10.1353/csd.2019.0003
• Student Hunger on Campus: Food Insecurity Among College Students and Implications for Academic Institutions. Payne-Sturges DC, Tjaden A, Caldeira KM, Vincent KB, Arria AM. Student Hunger on Campus: Food Insecurity Among College Students and Implications for Academic Institutions. Am J Health Promot. 2018;32(2):349-354. doi:10.1177/0890117117719620
• The Faces of Hunger: The Educational Impact of Hunger on Students With Disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic. Spies TG, Morgan JJ, Matsuura M. The Faces of Hunger: The Educational Impact of Hunger on Students With Disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic. 2014;50(1):5-14. doi:10.1177/1053451214532349
• Food Insecurity and Hunger in the Kindergarten Classroom: Its Effect on Learning and Growth. Winicki J, Jemison K. Food Insecurity and Hunger in the Kindergarten Classroom: Its Effect on Learning and Growth. Contemporary Economic Policy. 2003;21(2):145-157. doi:10.1093/cep/byg001
• Hunger: Its Impact on Children’s Health and Mental Health. Weinreb L, Wehler C, Perloff J, et al. Hunger: Its Impact on Children’s Health and Mental Health. Pediatrics. 2002;110(4):e41-e41. doi:10.1542/peds.110.4.e41
• Hunger in Midwestern Inner-city Young Children. Cutts DB, Pheley AM, Geppert JS. Hunger in Midwestern Inner-city Young Children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1998;152(5):489-493. doi:10.1001/archpedi.152.5.489
• Fasting and cognition in well- and undernourished schoolchildren: a review of three experimental studies. Pollitt E, Cueto S, Jacoby ER. Fasting and cognition in well- and undernourished schoolchildren: a review of three experimental studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;67(4):779S-784S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/67.4.779S
• Relationship between hunger and psychosocial functioning in low-income American children. Murphy JM, Wehler CA, Pagano ME, Little M, Kleinman RE, Jellinek MS. Relationship between hunger and psychosocial functioning in low-income American children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37(2):163-170. doi:10.1097/00004583-199802000-00008
• Hunger in children in the United States: potential behavioral and emotional correlates. Kleinman RE, Murphy JM, Little M, et al. Hunger in children in the United States: potential behavioral and emotional correlates. Pediatrics. 1998;101(1):E3. doi:10.1542/peds.101.1.e3

The Impact of “Breaking the Fast” on Academic Performance 

• Effects of eating breakfast on children and adolescents: A systematic review of potentially relevant outcomes in economic evaluations. Lundqvist M, Vogel NE, Levin L-A. Effects of eating breakfast on children and adolescents: A systematic review of potentially relevant outcomes in economic evaluations. Food Nutr Res. 2019;63. doi:10.29219/fnr.v63.1618
• The effects of breakfast on behavior and academic performance in children and adolescents. Adolphus K, Lawton CL, Dye L. The effects of breakfast on behavior and academic performance in children and adolescents. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00425
• Can the Provision of Breakfast Benefit School Performance? Grantham-McGregor S. Can the Provision of Breakfast Benefit School Performance? Food Nutr Bull. 2005;26:S144-S158. doi:10.1177/15648265050262S204
• Diet, breakfast, and academic performance in children. Kleinman RE, Hall S, Green H, et al. Diet, breakfast, and academic performance in children. Ann Nutr Metab. 2002;46 Suppl 1:24-30. doi:10.1159/000066399
• Does breakfast make a difference in school? Pollitt E. Does breakfast make a difference in school? J Am Diet Assoc. 1995;95(10):1134-1139. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00306-1

The Impact of Lifestyle and Dietary Habits on Academic Behavior, Performance, Attendance and Attrition

• How Lifestyle Factors Affect Cognitive and Executive Function and the Ability to Learn in Children. Jirout J, LoCasale-Crouch J, Turnbull K, et al. How Lifestyle Factors Affect Cognitive and Executive Function and the Ability to Learn in Children. Nutrients. 2019;11(8). doi:10.3390/nu11081953
• Relationships among physical activity, sleep duration, diet, and academic achievement in a sample of adolescents. Burns RD, Fu Y, Brusseau TA, Clements-Nolle K, Yang W. Relationships among physical activity, sleep duration, diet, and academic achievement in a sample of adolescents. Prev Med Rep. 2018;12:71-74. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2018.08.014
• University students’ on-campus food purchasing behaviors, preferences, and opinions on food availability. Tam R, Yassa B, Parker H, O’Connor H, Allman-Farinelli M. University students’ on-campus food purchasing behaviors, preferences, and opinions on food availability. Nutrition. 2017;37:7-13. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2016.07.007 
• Health-Related Behaviors and Academic Achievement Among High School Students — United States, 2015. Rasberry CN. Health-Related Behaviors and Academic Achievement Among High School Students — United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6635a1
• Dietary Habits Are Associated With School Performance in Adolescents. Kim SY, Sim S, Park B, Kong IG, Kim J-H, Choi HG. Dietary Habits Are Associated With School Performance in Adolescents. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(12):e3096. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000003096
• Attitudes and health behaviours of young adolescent omnivores and vegetarians: a  school-based study. Greene-Finestone LS, Campbell MK, Evers SE, Gutmanis IA. Attitudes and health behaviours of young adolescent omnivores and vegetarians: a  school-based study. Appetite. 2008;51(1):104-110. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.12.005
• Correlates of inadequate consumption of dairy products among adolescents. Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M, Dixon LB, Resnick MD, Blum RW. Correlates of inadequate consumption of dairy products among adolescents. Journal of nutrition education and behavior. 1997;29(1):12-20.
• Longitudinal tracking of adolescent smoking, physical activity, and food choice behaviors. Kelder SH, Perry CL, Klepp KI, Lytle LL. Longitudinal tracking of adolescent smoking, physical activity, and food choice behaviors. Am J Public Health. 1994;84(7):1121-1126. doi:10.2105/AJPH.84.7.1121

The Impact of Obesity on Academic Performance

• Physical activity, diet and other behavioural interventions for improving cognition and school achievement in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. Martin A, Booth JN, Laird Y, Sproule J, Reilly JJ, Saunders DH. Physical activity, diet and other behavioural interventions for improving cognition and school achievement in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;3:CD009728. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009728.pub4
• Childhood Obesity and Academic Performance: The Role of Working Memory. Front Psychol. Wu N, Chen Y, Yang J, Li F. Childhood Obesity and Academic Performance: The Role of Working Memory. Front Psychol. 2017;8:611. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00611
• The School Food Environment and Obesity Prevention: Progress Over the Last Decade. Welker E, Lott M, Story M. The School Food Environment and Obesity Prevention: Progress Over the Last Decade. Curr Obes Rep. 2016;5(2):145-155. doi:10.1007/s13679-016-0204-0
• Altered Decision-Making under Risk in Obesity. Navas JF, Vilar-Lopez R, Perales JC, Steward T, Fernandez-Aranda F, Verdejo-Garcia A. Altered Decision-Making under Risk in Obesity. PLoS One. 2016;11(6):e0155600. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155600
• Lifestyle intervention for improving school achievement in overweight or obese children and adolescents. Martin A, Saunders DH, Shenkin SD, Sproule J. Lifestyle intervention for improving school achievement in overweight or obese children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(3):CD009728. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009728.pub2
• Weight discrimination and bullying. Puhl RM, King KM. Weight discrimination and bullying. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;27(2):117-127. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2012.12.002
• Preventing obesity through schools. Nihiser A, Merlo C, Lee S. Preventing obesity through schools. J Law Med Ethics. 2013;41 Suppl 2:27-34. doi:10.1111/jlme.12106
• The effectiveness of web-based programs on the reduction of childhood obesity in school-aged children: A systematic review. Antwi F, Fazylova N, Garcon M-C, Lopez L, Rubiano R, Slyer JT. The effectiveness of web-based programs on the reduction of childhood obesity in school-aged children: A systematic review. JBI Libr Syst Rev. 2012;10(42 Suppl):1-14. doi:10.11124/jbisrir-2012-248
• School food-service directors’ perceptions of childhood obesity. Price JH, Telljohann SK. School food-service directors’ perceptions of childhood obesity. Psychol Rep. 1994;74(3 Pt 2):1347-1359.

The Impact of Dietary Quality on Academic Performance and Behavior

• Literature review: nutritional factors influencing academic achievement in school age children. Prangthip P, Soe YM, Signar JF. Literature review: nutritional factors influencing academic achievement in school age children. Int J Adolesc Med Health. February 2019. doi:10.1515/ijamh-2018-0142
• Breakfast Types Are Associated with Adolescents’ IQ and Academic Achievement. Liu J, Wu L, Hanlon A, et al. Breakfast Types Are Associated with Adolescents’ IQ and Academic Achievement. Curr Dev Nutr. 2019;3. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzz039.P18-103-19
• Associations between Food Group Intake, Cognition, and Academic Achievement in Elementary Schoolchildren. Bleiweiss-Sande R, Chui K, Wright C, Amin S, Anzman-Frasca S, Sacheck JM. Associations between Food Group Intake, Cognition, and Academic Achievement in Elementary Schoolchildren. Nutrients. 2019;11(11). doi:10.3390/nu11112722
• Comparative Effect of Low-Glycemic Index versus High-Glycemic Index Breakfasts on Cognitive Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Álvarez-Bueno C, Martínez-Vizcaíno V, López EJ, Visier-Alfonso ME, Redondo-Tébar A, Cavero-Redondo I. Comparative Effect of Low-Glycemic Index versus High-Glycemic Index Breakfasts on Cognitive Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2019;11(8). doi:10.3390/nu11081706
• School meal quality and academic performance. Anderson ML, Gallagher J, Ramirez Ritchie E. School meal quality and academic performance. Journal of Public Economics. 2018;168:81-93. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.09.013
• Associations between Dietary Intake and Academic Achievement in College Students: A Systematic Review. Burrows TL, Whatnall MC, Patterson AJ, Hutchesson MJ. Associations between Dietary Intake and Academic Achievement in College Students: A Systematic Review. Healthcare (Basel). 2017;5(4). doi:10.3390/healthcare5040060
• Breakfast Intake and Composition Is Associated with Superior Academic Achievement in Elementary Schoolchildren. Ptomey LT, Steger FL, Schubert MM, et al. Breakfast Intake and Composition Is Associated with Superior Academic Achievement in Elementary Schoolchildren. J Am Coll Nutr. 2016;35(4):326-333. doi:10.1080/07315724.2015.1048381
• Self-Reported Academic Grades and Other Correlates of Sugar-Sweetened Soda Intake among US Adolescents. Park S, Sherry B, Foti K, Blanck HM. Self-Reported Academic Grades and Other Correlates of Sugar-Sweetened Soda Intake among US Adolescents. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2012;112(1):125-131. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2011.08.045
• Nutrition and student performance at school. Taras H. Nutrition and student performance at school. J Sch Health. 2005;75(6):199-213. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2005.00025.x
• Effect of breakfast composition on cognitive processes in elementary school children. Mahoney CR, Taylor HA, Kanarek RB, Samuel P. Effect of breakfast composition on cognitive processes in elementary school children. Physiol Behav. 2005;85(5):635-645. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.06.023
• Rational dosages of nutrients have a prolonged effect on learning disabilities. Carlton RM, Ente G, Blum L, Heyman N, Davis W, Ambrosino S. Rational dosages of nutrients have a prolonged effect on learning disabilities. Altern Ther Health Med. 2000;6(3):85-91.
• Correlates of inadequate fruit and vegetable consumption among adolescents. Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M, Resnick MD, Blum RW. Correlates of inadequate fruit and vegetable consumption among adolescents. Prev Med. 1996;25(5):497-505. doi:10.1006/pmed.1996.0082
• The effect of sugar on behavior or cognition in children. A meta-analysis. Wolraich ML, Wilson DB, White JW. The effect of sugar on behavior or cognition in children. A meta-analysis. JAMA. 1995;274(20):1617-1621. doi:10.1001/jama.1995.03530200053037

Food as a Reward and Extrinsic Motivation on Student Learning and Behavior

• Greater Food Reward Sensitivity Is Associated with More Frequent Intake of Discretionary Foods in a Nationally Representative Sample of Young Adults. Nansel TR, Lipsky LM, Eisenberg MH, Haynie DL, Liu D, Simons-Morton B. Greater Food Reward Sensitivity Is Associated with More Frequent Intake of Discretionary Foods in a Nationally Representative Sample of Young Adults. Front Nutr. 2016;3. doi:10.3389/fnut.2016.00033
• How Food as a Reward Is Detrimental to Children’s Health, Learning, and Behavior. Fedewa AL, Davis MC. How Food as a Reward Is Detrimental to Children’s Health, Learning, and Behavior. Journal of School Health. 2015;85(9):648-658. doi:10.1111/josh.12294
• Food as a reward in the classroom: school district policies are associated with practices in US public elementary schools. Turner L, Chriqui JF, Chaloupka FJ. Food as a reward in the classroom: school district policies are associated with practices in US public elementary schools. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2012;112(9):1436-1442. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2012.03.025
• If you are good you can have a cookie: How memories of childhood food rules link to adult eating behaviors. Puhl RM, Schwartz MB. If you are good you can have a cookie: How memories of childhood food rules link to adult eating behaviors. Eat Behav. 2003;4(3):283-293. doi:10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00024-2

Impact of Dietary Supplements and Non-School Based Interventions 

• Childhood and adolescent fish consumption and adult neuropsychological performance: An analysis from the Cape Cod Health Study. Butler LJ, Janulewicz PA, Carwile JL, White RF, Winter MR, Aschengrau A. Childhood and adolescent fish consumption and adult neuropsychological performance: An analysis from the Cape Cod Health Study. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2017;61:47-57. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2017.03.001
• Effects of Oral Vitamin C Supplementation on Anxiety in Students: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. de Oliveira IJL, de Souza VV, Motta V, Da-Silva SL. Effects of Oral Vitamin C Supplementation on Anxiety in Students: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Pak J Biol Sci. 2015;18(1):11-18. doi:10.3923/pjbs.2015.11.18
• Omega-3 supplementation during the first 5 years of life and later academic performance: a randomised controlled trial. Brew BK, Toelle BG, Webb KL, Almqvist C, Marks GB. Omega-3 supplementation during the first 5 years of life and later academic performance: a randomised controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2015;69(4):419-424. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2014.155
• The Impact of a Food Elimination Diet on Collegiate Athletes’ 300-meter Run Time and Concentration. The Impact of a Food Elimination Diet on Collegiate Athletes’ 300-meter Run Time  and Concentration. Stockton S, Breshears K, Baker DM. The Impact of a Food Elimination Diet on Collegiate Athletes’ 300-meter Run Time  and Concentration. Glob Adv Health Med. 2014;3(6):25-40. doi:10.7453/gahmj.2014.046
• Brief report: gum chewing affects standardized math scores in adolescents. Johnston CA, Tyler C, Stansberry SA, Moreno JP, Foreyt JP. Brief report: gum chewing affects standardized math scores in adolescents. J Adolesc. 2012;35(2):455-459. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.04.003
• Multivitamin/Mineral supplementation does not affect standardized assessment of academic performance in elementary school children. Perlman AI, Worobey J, O’Sullivan Maillet J, Touger-Decker R, Hom DL, Smith JK. Multivitamin/Mineral supplementation does not affect standardized assessment of academic performance in elementary school children. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(7):1089-1093. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.04.004
• Multiple micronutrient supplementation for improving cognitive performance in children: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Eilander A, Gera T, Sachdev HS, et al. Multiple micronutrient supplementation for improving cognitive performance in children: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(1):115-130. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28376
• Caffeine use by children: the quest for enhancement. Bramstedt KA. Caffeine use by children: the quest for enhancement. Subst Use Misuse. 2007;42(8):1237-1251. doi:10.1080/10826080701208962
• The effect of vitamin-mineral supplementation on the intelligence of American schoolchildren: a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial.  Schoenthaler SJ, Bier ID, Young K, Nichols D, Jansenns S. The effect of vitamin-mineral supplementation on the intelligence of American schoolchildren: a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial. J Altern Complement Med. 2000;6(1):19-29. doi:10.1089/acm.2000.6.19
• Vitamin and mineral supplementation and academic performance in schoolchildren. Nelson M. Vitamin and mineral supplementation and academic performance in schoolchildren. Proc Nutr Soc. 1992;51(3):303-313. doi:10.1079/pns19920044

Impact of School-Based Nutrition/Feeding Programs

• Universal Access to Free School Meals through the Community Eligibility Provision Is Associated with Better Attendance for Low-Income Elementary School Students in Wisconsin. Bartfeld JS, Berger L, Men F. Universal Access to Free School Meals through the Community Eligibility Provision Is Associated with Better Attendance for Low-Income Elementary School Students in Wisconsin. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2020;120(2):210-218. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2019.07.022
• School-Based Weekend Feeding Program: A Comparison Group Design Documents Selection Efficacy and Appreciable Effects on School Attendance. Fiese BH, Gundersen C, Koester B, Waxman E. School-Based Weekend Feeding Program: A Comparison Group Design Documents Selection Efficacy and Appreciable Effects on School Attendance. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 2019;0(0):1-10. doi:10.1080/19320248.2019.1610538
• A Free, Egg-based ‘Breakfast in the Classroom’ Program Improves School Breakfast Participation, Eating Habits, and Cognitive Performance in Middle-school Adolescents. Braden M, Douglas S, Kruse M, Leidy H. A Free, Egg-based ‘Breakfast in the Classroom’ Program Improves School Breakfast Participation, Eating Habits, and Cognitive Performance in Middle-school Adolescents. Curr Dev Nutr. 2019;3 doi:10.1093/cdn/nzz050.OR13-02-19
• Access to the School Breakfast Program Is Associated with Higher Attendance and Test Scores among Elementary School Students. Bartfeld JS, Berger L, Men F, Chen Y. Access to the School Breakfast Program Is Associated with Higher Attendance and Test Scores among Elementary School Students. J Nutr. 2019;149(2):336-343. doi:10.1093/jn/nxy267
• School Gardens Enhance Academic Performance and Dietary Outcomes in Children. Berezowitz CK, Bontrager Yoder AB, Schoeller DA. School Gardens Enhance Academic Performance and Dietary Outcomes in Children. J Sch Health. 2015;85(8):508-518. doi:10.1111/josh.12278
• Participation in the School Breakfast Program: new evidence from the ECLS-K. Bartfeld J, Kim M. Participation in the School Breakfast Program: new evidence from the ECLS-K. Soc Serv Rev. 2010;84(4):541-562. doi:10.1086/657109
• Pilot study: EatFit impacts sixth graders’ academic performance on achievement of mathematics and english education standards. Shilts MK, Lamp C, Horowitz M, Townsend MS. Pilot study: EatFit impacts sixth graders’ academic performance on achievement of mathematics and english education standards. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2009;41(2):127-131. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2008.05.007
• School food environments and practices affect dietary behaviors of US public school children. Briefel RR, Crepinsek MK, Cabili C, Wilson A, Gleason PM. School food environments and practices affect dietary behaviors of US public school children. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009;109(2 Suppl):S91-107. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2008.10.059
• A BackPack Program Provides Help for Weekend Child Hunger. RD NCD, BA SF. A BackPack Program Provides Help for Weekend Child Hunger. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 2008;2(4):39-45. doi:10.1080/19320240802032099
• School feeding for improving the physical and psychosocial health of disadvantaged elementary school children. Kristjansson EA, Robinson V, Petticrew M, et al. School feeding for improving the physical and psychosocial health of disadvantaged elementary school children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(1):CD004676. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004676.pub2
• Coordinated school health program and dietetics professionals: partners in promoting healthful eating. Gross SM, Cinelli B. Coordinated school health program and dietetics professionals: partners in promoting healthful eating. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104(5):793-798. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2004.02.024
• Evaluation of the School Breakfast Program Pilot Project: Final Report. Bernstein LS, McLaughlin JE, Crepinsek MK, Daft LM. Evaluation of the School Breakfast Program Pilot Project: Final Report. Special Nutrition Programs. Report Number CN-04-SBP. Nutrition Assistance Program Report Series. USDA, Food and Nutrition Service, 3101Park Center Drive, Room 1014, Alexandria, VA 22302-1500.; 2004. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED486532. 
• School Breakfast Program and School Performance. Meyers AF, Sampson AE, Weitzman M, Rogers BL, Kayne H. School Breakfast Program and school performance. Am J Dis Child. 1989;143(10):1234-1239. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1989.02150220142035
• The impact of a low food additive and sucrose diet on academic performance in 803 New York City public schools. Schoenthaler SJ, Doraz WE, Wakefield JA. The impact of a low food additive and sucrose diet on academic performance in 803 New York City public schools. International Journal of Biosocial Research. 1986;8(2):185-195.

The Impact of Federal, State and Municipal Policies on Feeding Practices and Dietary Behaviors on Schools (and Students)

• Nutrition Policies, Practices, and Environments in Low-Income Georgia Elementary  Schools, United States, 2015-2017. Guglielmo D, Chantaprasopsuk S, Kay CM, Hyde ET, Stewart C, Gazmararian JA. Nutrition Policies, Practices, and Environments in Low-Income Georgia Elementary  Schools, United States, 2015-2017. J Sch Health. 2020. doi:10.1111/josh.12874
• Association of State Laws Regarding Snacks in US Schools With Students’ Consumption of Solid Fats and Added Sugars. Turner L, Leider J, Piekarz-Porter E, Chriqui JF. Association of State Laws Regarding Snacks in US Schools With Students’ Consumption of Solid Fats and Added Sugars. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(1):e1918436. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.18436
• Post-Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act Adherence to Select School Nutrition Standards by Region and Poverty Level: The Healthy Communities Study. Au LE, Ritchie LD, Gurzo K, et al. Post-Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act Adherence to Select School Nutrition Standards by Region and Poverty Level: The Healthy Communities Study. J Nutr Educ Behav. November 2019. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2019.10.016
• Practice Paper of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Comprehensive Nutrition Programs and Services in Schools. Hayes D, Dodson L. Practice Paper of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Comprehensive Nutrition Programs and Services in Schools. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2018;118(5):920-931. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2018.02.025
• The Impact of 1 Year of Healthier School Food Policies on Students’ Diets During and Outside of the School Day. Cohen JFW, Gorski Findling MT, Rosenfeld L, Smith L, Rimm EB, Hoffman JA. The Impact of 1 Year of Healthier School Food Policies on Students’ Diets During and Outside of the School Day. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2018;118(12):2296-2301. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2018.07.009
• The Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child model: a new approach for improving educational attainment and healthy development for students. Lewallen TC, Hunt H, Potts-Datema W, Zaza S, Giles W. The Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child model: a new approach for improving educational attainment and healthy development for students. J Sch Health. 2015;85(11):729-739. doi:10.1111/josh.12310
• Differential Improvements in Student Fruit and Vegetable Selection and Consumption in Response to the New National School Lunch Program Regulations: A Pilot Study. Cullen KW, Chen T-A, Dave JM, Jensen H. Differential Improvements in Student Fruit and Vegetable Selection and Consumption in Response to the New National School Lunch Program Regulations: A Pilot Study. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2015;115(5):743-750. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2014.10.021
• National School Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program: nutrition standards for all foods sold in school as required by the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010. Food and Nutrition Service, USDA. National School Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program: nutrition standards for all foods sold in school as required by the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010. Interim final rule. Fed Regist. 2013;78(125):39067-39120.
• School food, politics and child health. Bundy DAP, Drake LJ, Burbano C. School food, politics and child health. Public Health Nutr. 2013;16(6):1012-1019. doi:10.1017/S1368980012004661
• Differences in nutrient intake associated with state laws regarding fat, sugar, and caloric content of competitive foods. Taber DR, Chriqui JF, Chaloupka FJ. Differences in nutrient intake associated with state laws regarding fat, sugar, and caloric content of competitive foods. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166(5):452-458. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.1839
• Change in dietary energy density after implementation of the Texas Public School Nutrition Policy. Mendoza JA, Watson K, Cullen KW. Change in dietary energy density after implementation of the Texas Public School Nutrition Policy. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(3):434-440. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.11.021
• Position of the American Dietetic Association, School Nutrition Association, and  Society for Nutrition Education: comprehensive school nutrition services. Briggs M, Fleischhacker S, Mueller CG. Position of the American Dietetic Association, School Nutrition Association, and  Society for Nutrition Education: comprehensive school nutrition services. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2010;42(6):360-371. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2010.08.007
• Improvements in middle school student dietary intake after implementation of the Texas Public School Nutrition Policy. Cullen KW, Watson K, Zakeri I. Improvements in middle school student dietary intake after implementation of the Texas Public School Nutrition Policy. Am J Public Health. 2008;98(1):111-117. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.111765
• Food Stamp Program participation is associated with better academic learning among school children. Frongillo EA, Jyoti DF, Jones SJ. Food Stamp Program participation is associated with better academic learning among school children. J Nutr. 2006;136(4):1077-1080. doi:10.1093/jn/136.4.1077
• Exploring changes in middle-school student lunch consumption after local school food service policy modifications. Cullen KW, Watson K, Zakeri I, Ralston K. Exploring changes in middle-school student lunch consumption after local school food service policy modifications. Public Health Nutr. 2006;9(6):814-820. doi:10.1079/phn2005878

Select News Articles on the Impact of Food on Academic Performance, Attendance, Behavior and Attrition

• Should Parents Stop Making School Lunches (New York Times 2020)
• Does Eating Breakfast Mean Better Grades for Teens (ABC 2020)
• The Lack of a Healthy Lunch at School Hurts Students More than You Think (The Hill 2019)
• It’s Hard to Be Hungry on Spring Break (New York Times 2018)
• It’s Hard to Study if You’re Hungry (New York Times 2018)
• New York City Offers Free Lunch for All Public School Students (New York Times 2018)
• Do Healthy Lunches Improve Student Test Scores. (The Atlantic 2017)
• Feeding Young Minds: The Importance of School Lunches (New York Times 2017)
• How Does Nutrition Impact Children’s School Performance (CNN 2017)